H
Chapter 18
Human Growth and Development
Define life span:
*the maximum life span of human beings is approximately_________.
Define life expectancy:
*the life expectancy of individuals born today in the US is _________.
today’s life expectancy for females:_____
today’s life expectancy for males:_______
*beginning at the age of 25, females outnumber males, and the gap continues to grow.
*by the time adults are 75 years old, more than ____________ of the population is female.
*these differences are due to :
a.
b.
c.
d.
*biological factors play a role, too, as females outlive males in virtually all species.
*late adulthood has the longest span of any period of human development: __________.
*developmentalists thus distinguish between subperiods in the stage, although definite age boundaries are not yet agreed upon.
the young-old:
the old-old:
the oldest old:
Biological Theories of Aging:
recent research has shown than telomeres are DNA sequences that cap chromosomes, and that each time a cell divides, telomeres become shorter and shorter.
age-linked telomere erosion has been found to be linked with an impaired ability to recover from stress and an increased rate of cancer formation.
these molecules ricochet around the cells, damaging DNA and other cellular structures.
this damage can lead to a range of disorders, including cancer and arthritis.
mitochondria:
With age, hormones stimulated by stress that flow through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system remain elevated longer than when we were younger.
hypothalamic:
pituitary:
adrenal:
Slowdown of Central Nervous System Functioning:
1.
2. this slowdown can affect ________________________________ and _____________________________.
3. After age _________, many adults no longer show a knee-jerk reflex and by age _______ most reflexes are virtually gone.
Changes in Physical Appearance and Movement:
1. changes become more pronounced.
2. the most noticeable changes are in the form of __________________________ and _______________________.
3. we get shorter when we get older.
4. our weight usually drops after we are 60, most likely due to _________________________________, which causes us to look “saggy.”
At age 75:
_____% of the body is FAT.
_____% of the body is MUSCLE.
_____% of the body is BONE.
_____% of the body is OTHER.
Changes in Vision:
1. any decline in vision that began in early or middle adulthood becomes more pronounced.
2. night driving is particularly difficult.
3. dark adaptation is slower.
4. visual field becomes smaller.
Diseases of the Eye:
cataracts:
glaucoma:
macular degeneration:
Changes in Hearing:
1. __________ of individuals aged 75 to 79 experience some type of hearing problem.
2. _________ of those over 65 are legally deaf.
3. This hearing loss is usually due to the degeneration of the cochlea, which is _____________________________________________________________________.
Changes in Smell and Taste:
1. most older adults lose some of their sense of smell, taste, or both.
2. smell and taste losses often begin around the age of ______.
3. Why do many older adults often prefer highly seasoned foods?
4. this may lead to eating more non-nutritious, highly-seasoned junk food.
Changes in Touch and Pain:
1. Studies have shown that with aging, individuals could detect touch less in the ______________________________ than in the _______________________________.
2. for most older adults, this decline is not a problem.
3. older adults are less sensitive to pain and suffer from it less than younger adults.
4. This can be harmful if it masks injury and illness that need to be treated.
Changes in Circulatory System:
1. When heart disease is absent, the amount of blood pumped through the heart is the same regardless of an adult’s age.
2. What causes blood pressure to rise with age?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3. high blood pressure should be treated.
Changes in the Respiratory System:
1. lung capacity drops ________- between the ages of 20 and 80, even without disease.
2. 3 changes in the lungs:
a.
b.
c.
3. diaphragm-strengthening exercises can improve lung functioning.
Changes in Sexuality:
1. aging does induce some changes in sexual performance, more so in males than females.
2. from the age of 65-80, ____________________________ men have serious erectile problems.
3. over the age of 80, _____________________ men have serious erectile problems.
Chronic Conditions in late adulthood:
1. 9.
2. 10.
3. 11.
4. 12.
5. 13.
6. 14.
7. 15.
8.
Arthritis:
1.
2. is especially common in older adults.
3. can effect:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2 types of arthritis:
osteoarthritis:
1.
2.
rheumatoid arthritis:
1.
2.
Osteoporosis:
1. the main reason many older adults with a marked stoop.
2. __________________ are especially vulnerable to osteoporosis.
3. it is the leading cause of broken bones in women.
4. it afflicts __________ of women over the age of 60.
5. related to deficiencies in:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Accidents during late adulthood:
1. the _______________ leading cause of death for older adults.
2. injuries resulting from a fall at home or during a traffic accident are common.
3. each year, approximately _________________ adults over the age of 65 fracture a hip in a fall.
4. half of these adults die within 12 months, frequently from pneumonia.
5. one study showed an exercise program reduced the risk of falls in elderly patients.
Causes of death in older adults:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Benefits of exercise in older adults:
1. can minimize physiological changes
a.
2. can optimize body composition
a.
3. is related to prevention of common chronic disorders
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4. is linked to increased longevity
a.
Health care options for older adults:
1. Only about ______of adults age 65 and over reside in a nursing home.
2. About ______ of adults 85 and older live in a nursing home or other extended care facility.
3. Alternative include:
a.
b.
c.
4. They are cheaper and less likely to engender feelings of depersonalization and dependency.
Chapter 19
Human Growth and Development
Define and discuss cognitive mechanics:
It involves the speed and accuracy of the processes involving:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Due to the strong influence of ____________________, ____________________, and _____________________ on cognitive mechanics, they generally decline with age.
Define and discuss cognitive pragmatics:
Cognitive pragmatics include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive pragmatics, their improvement into old is possible.
ATTENTION:
selective attention:
divided attention:
sustained attention:
DIMENSIONS OF MEMORY:
episodic memory:
*researchers have consistently found that in older adults the older the memory, the less accurate it is.
semantic memory:
*for the most part, though it may take longer, semantic memory remains the same in late adulthood.
working memory:
perceptual speed:
*researchers have found declines in working memory and perceptual speed during the late adulthood years.
explicit memory:
implicit memory:
source memory:
*example is telling the same story to the same person over and over.
prospective memory:
*while some researchers have found a decline in prospective memory with age, a number of studies show that whether there is a decline is complex and depends on the nature of the task and what is being assessed.
beliefs, expectations, and feelings:
*individuals with low anxiety about their memory skills and high self-efficacy regarding their use of memory had better memory performance..
noncognitive factors:
WISDOM:
*focuses on life’s pragmatic concerns and human conditions.
*research shows no age differences in wisdom.
*wisdom involves solving practical problems
RETIREMENT:
Terminal Drop Hypothesis:
*thus the negative findings for older adults in some investigations that compare older adults with younger adults may be due in part to age from death rather than simply age from birth.
Adjusting to Retirement:
Who adjusts better to retirement?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
*cultivating interests and friends unrelated to work improves adaptation to retirement.
*it is important to plan financially for retirement and to consider other areas of your life as well.
*individuals who retire involuntarily are more :
a.
b.
c.
MENTAL HEALTH:
major depression:
*symptoms of major depression include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
*one study found greater depression in women than men at age 50 and 60 but not at age ______.
*men showed increases in depression symptoms from 60 to 80, but women did not.
*depression is a treatable condition.
dementia:
*individuals with dementia often lose the ability to care for themselves and may lose the ability to recognize familiar surroundings and people.
*over __________ types of dementia have been identified.
*it is estimated that ________ of individuals over
Alzheimer’s disease:
*the most common form of dementia
*as it progresses, deterioration and shrinking of the brain occurs
*approx. ____________ people in the US have Alzheimer’s disease.
*there is a predictable, progressive decline in physical, cognitive, and social functioning when individuals have Alzheimer’s disease.
*once diagnosed, most patients live approx. 8 years.
*they progress from early problems of memory loss and declining intellectual function to later stages in which hospitalization in a near vegetative state ensues.
Multi-infarct dementia:
*symptoms include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
*approx. 35-50% of people who have these attacks will have a major stroke within 5 years unless the underlying problems are treated.
Parkinsons Disease:
*it is triggered by degeneration or dopamine-producing neurons in the brain.
* dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is necessary for normal brain functioning.
*why the degeneration of the production of dopamine occurs is not known.
*a drug called L-dopa is the main treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
Religious Involvement:
___________ have been found to have a stronger interest in religion than older men.
*individuals over 65 have reported being more likely than younger people to claim religious faith as the most significant influence in their lives, that they try to put religious faith into practice, and that they attend religious services.
*older adults have also been found to have a stronger interest in spirituality and to pray more than younger adults.
Benefits of religious involvement:
* One study of 836 older persons, religious practices and religious feelings were associated with a sense of well-being, especially for those over 75.
*Another study revealed that older adults’ self-esteem was highest when they had a strong religious commitment.
*Religion can help older adults face:
a.
b.
c.
Religion and longevity:
*a recent study showed that individuals who said they rarely or never prayed had about __________ greater risk of dying during the 6 year study compared with their counterparts who prayed or meditating at least once a month.
*possibly the lower incidence of death in these individuals occurred because prayer and meditation:
a.
b.
Chapter 20
Human Growth and Development
Theories of Socioemontional Development:
*involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’ life has not been well spent.
*negative reflections of the past lead to despair.
*Peck believes older adults need to pursue a set of valued activities so that time previously spent in an occupation and with children can be filled.
*For those whose identity has revolved around their physical well-being, the decrease in health and deterioration of physical capabilities may present a severe threat to identity and feelings of life satisfaction.
*can include sociocultural issues, interpersonal and relationship dimensions, and personal dimensions.
B. Disengagement Theory:
*older adults develop increasing self preoccupation, lessen emotional ties with others, and show decreasing interest in society’s affairs.
*researchers have found strong support for activity theory, as when older adults are active, energetic, and productive; they age more successfully and are happier.
*because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships.
*the process of selective optimization with compensation is likely to be effective whenever loss is prominent in a person’s life.
*selection is based on the concept that:
*optimization suggests that:
*compensation becomes relevant when:
The Self and Society
Self-Esteem:
*increases in the ______________
*Levels off in the _____________
*rises considerably higher in the ______________________
*drops significantly in the ____________________________
Self-Acceptance:
*Self-acceptance is dependent on:
*in older adults, there was little difference in acceptance of various selves because of decreased acceptance of ideal and future selves and increased acceptance of past selves.
Stereotyping older adults:
define ageism:
*older adults may be perceived as incapable of thinking clearly, learning new things,
enjoying sex, contributing to the community, and holding responsible jobs.
Eldercare:
*an important issue is how it can best be provided
*an added problem is many caregivers are in their 60s and many are ill themselves.
Generational Inequity:
*another issue is whether or not the ‘advantaged’ old population is using up resources
that should go to disadvantaged children.
Living Arrangements:
*nearly ___________ of older adults live in their community
*almost ___________ live with family members
*Almost ___________ live alone
*the older adults become, the more likely they are to live in an institution
*the majority of the elderly in institutions are widows, and they are increasing in number.
Lifestyle Diversity:
A.
A.
B.
A.
A.
Great Grandparenting:
*because of increased longevity, more grandparents are also great-grandparents.
*one role is to transmit family history.
Aspects of Aging
A.
2. Social Support/Social Integration:
*benefits of social support:
a,
b.
c.
3. Altruism and Volunteerism:
*helping others may reduce the output of stress hormones which:
a.
b.
*older adults who volunteer are more satisfied with their lives and were less
depressed and anxious.
4. Ethnicity:
*African Americans and Latinos often face the double jeopardy of both ageism
and racism.
*they are more likely to become ill and less likely to receive treatment.
*many never have social security and Medicare benefits because they die
before reaching that age.
5. Gender:
*there appears to be a decrease in femininity in women and decrease in
masculinity in men when they reach late adulthood.
*women may face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism
*the poverty rate for older females is almost double that of older males
6. Culture: 7 factors most likely to predict high status for older adults in a culture:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Chapter 21
Human Growth and Development
DEFINING DEATH:
Brain death:
*the brain’s lower portions monitor vital functions, thus people whose higher brain function areas have dies may continue breathing and have a current heartbeat.
*the current definition of brain death for most physicians includes the death of both the higher cortical functions and lower brain stem functions.
Causes of Death in Older Adults:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Define Living Will:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Euthanasia:
*sometimes referred to ‘mercy killing’.
Hospice:
*the hospices goals contrast with those of a hospital, which are to cure illness and prolong life.
hospices emphasize palliative care:
*death can occur at any point across the life span.
Causes of Death Across the Life-Span:
Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Dying:
1. Denial and Isolation:
*these individuals try to convince themselves that the lab tests were inaccurate or that the disease will go into remission.
2. Anger:
*at this point, the dying person becomes increasingly difficult to care for, as anger may become displaced and projected into physicians, nurses, family members, and God.
*the realization of loss is great and those who represent life are targets orf resentment and jealousy.
3. Bargaining:
*some people enter into a bargaining or negotiation - often with God, as they try to delay death.
*in exchange for a few more days, weeks, or months of life, the person promises to lead a reformed life dedicated to God or to the service of others.
4. Depression:
*the dying person may become silent, refuse visitors, and spend much time crying or grieving.
*attempts to cheer up the dying person at this stage should be discouraged because the dying person has a need to contemplate impending death.
*in this stage, feelings and physical pain may be virtually absent.
*Kubler-Ross views this stage as the end of the dying struggle, the final resting state before death.
Communicating with a Dying Person:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dimensions of Grief:
Grief is the emotional numbness, disbelief, separation anxiety, despair, sadness, and loneliness that accompany the loss of someone we love.
1. pining or yearning reflects ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. separation anxiety includes ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. numbness, disbelief, and out bursts of panic __________________________________________________________________
4. despair, sadness, and hopelessness are included.
3 examples of dysfunctional coping methods:
1. avoidance:
2. obliteration:
3. idolization:
Forms of mourning:
1.
2.
3.